the thigh is referred to as what region

Introduction

Anatomical structures that exit the pelvis deep to the inguinal ligament are, from lateral to medial, the femoral nerve, the external iliac to the femoral avenue, and the external iliac to femoral vein. Distal portions of all three major structures enter what is known as the femoral triangle, plant inside the anterior proximal portion of the femoral region.[one] Known more commonly equally the "thigh," this area serves as a confluence of all major vasculature, lymphatic and nerve supply to the lower extremity; along with the origin and/or insertion of significant musculature which mediates the full range of motility of the hip.[2] The region's clinical significance stems from both the anatomical structures that consist of it and the related procedural/surgical implications involved within this area of the torso.

Structure and Role

The main construction of the femoral region relates to the femur and its proximal articulation with the pelvis to grade the coxa (hip) joint and its distal articulation with the tibia and patella, and by extension the fibula, to course the knee joint.[3] The femur, considered a long bone in development, from proximal to distal consists of the caput, anatomical neck, greater and lesser trochanters, shaft with linea aspera forth its posterior surface, and the medial and lateral femoral condyles.[4] Inside the hip joint, the femoral head articulates with the acetabular fossa. This articulation has back up from the lunate surface (cartilage) lining the acetabular fossa, and the joint is supported by the ligament of the caput of the femur (ligamentum teres of the acetabulum). Through this runs the foveal artery to the acetabular labrum and surrounding joint capsule (synovial membrane, iliofemoral ligament, ischiofemoral ligament, pubofemoral ligament).[five] Within the articulatio genus joint the medial/lateral femoral condyles articulate with the medial/lateral tibial plateaus. The knee joint is supported by the medial/lateral menisci and the articulation supported by the anterior/posterior cruciate ligaments, tibial (medial)/fibular (lateral) collateral ligaments, and patellar ligament in which sits the patella[half-dozen]

The function relates to the multiple musculus groups contained within this region which support and induce a range of motility in the hip and the articulatio genus. The main muscle groups found within this region tin can be categorized past the relative anatomical locations of each group, which commonly correlates with a specific range of move of the hip that they facilitate when stimulated. The anterior thigh muscles tend to induce flexion and some adduction of the hip and extension of the knee, medial thigh muscles primarily induce adduction with some flexion and internal rotation of the hip, posterior thigh muscles tend to produce extension and some abduction and internal/external rotation of the hip and flexion of the knee.[7] The specific muscles of these compartments are covered beneath in a later department.

Embryology

During calendar week iv of embryologic development, limb buds begin to develop - the upper limbs appear earlier the lower limbs. On the distally growing end, each limb tip contains upmost ectodermal ridge tissue which mediates the proper development of each limb to full differentiation at week 8.[8] Within the base of the lower limb buds, layers of mesoderm organize into what is known as the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA) which produces sonic hedgehog gene product. The function of this protein involves activation of the bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) gene and Hoxd-9 through Hoxd-13 genes; both serving roles which modulate the proper growth and lengthening of the limb.[nine] Initially, the lower limb buds, as they begin to develop around week four, grow along a coronal plane. However, by week half dozen to viii, the buds start to move and grow in first a horizontal move growing forth a sagittal plane and and then rotating internally so that the knee faces anteriorly.[eight]

While the limb structure is developing, other tissues inside the limb follow suit:

• Vasculature - the external iliac artery and a branch of the umbilical artery known equally the axis artery develops in parallel. As the limb continues to lengthen the femoral avenue develops from the growing external iliac; the femoral artery also giving rise to the profunda femoris artery. The axis avenue, in turn, gives rising to the anterior tibial avenue from which develops the dorsalis pedis avenue distally, and the posterior tibial artery, which terminates as the medial plantar artery and lateral plantar avenue. The centrality artery at full development regresses to sections of fully developed arterial structures including the inferior gluteal avenue, sciatic avenue, the proximal popliteal artery, and the distal peroneal artery.[10]

• Musculus and nervous tissue - the developing musculature arises from mesoderm constitute in somites L1 to L5, S1 to S2; closely congruent with developing ventral primary rami of L2 to L5, and S1 to S3. As the extension of the somite mesoderm follows lower limb growth, mesoderm condensations begin to form in the anterior and posterior compartments; along with differentiation of the rami into inductive and posterior divisions. Generally, the anterior condensation goes on to develop the muscles responsible for flexion and adduction, and the posterior condensation develops the extensor and abductor muscles. For the divided rami, the anterior division gives rise to the tibial and obturator nerves, whereas the posterior division gives rise to the superior and junior gluteal fretfulness, femoral nerve, and common peroneal nervus.[11]

• Bone formation - the lateral plate mesoderm gives ascension to most of the bones of the lower limb; in the femoral region specifically the femur, which undergoes endochondral ossification. Offset in weeks 5 to 6 of development, the lateral plate mesoderm condenses and chondrifies into hyaline cartilage structures. By weeks 7 to 9, primary ossification centers begin to course in the developing femur and tibia. From calendar week 9 to birth, the diaphysis continues to develop while the epiphysis remains as hyaline cartilage. Newborn years and on, secondary ossifications develop and form the epiphyseal plates separated from the diaphysis past the metaphysis[12].

Blood Supply and Lymphatics

From the external iliac artery that exits the pelvis immediately deep to the inguinal ligament, the segment known every bit the femoral artery runs through the femoral triangle in parallel with the femoral vein and the deep inguinal lymphatic chain via the femoral culvert. Each vessel serves equally the proximal origin of the structures supporting the tissues of the femoral region; except for the sciatic nervus (L4 to S3) in the posterior compartment, that comes off the lumbosacral plexus.[one]

The femoral artery, every bit it exits the femoral triangle, branches into the three major arteries of this region[xiii]:

• Continuation of the femoral avenue - enters the adductor canal along the border of iliopsoas and pectineus muscles and deep to sartorius, initially remaining in the anterior compartment but then diving deep as it exits the adductor hiatus where it becomes the popliteal artery

• Profunda femoris - the deep branch of the femoral artery inside the femoral triangle, dives deep to the adductor longus musculus and gives off perforating arteries which wrap around the posterior aspect of the femur

• Lateral circumflex arteries – the lateral branch of the profunda femoris superficial to the hip joint capsule, gives off a transverse co-operative which wraps posteriorly effectually the proximal femoral shaft and the descending branch which follows the most lateral thigh muscles to their attachments on the inductive knee

The femoral vein and its branches within the femoral region follow very similar courses to the related arteries; the femoral vein follows the femoral avenue, the profunda femoris vein follows the profunda femoris artery, and the lateral circumflex veins follow the lateral circumflex arteries. The just exception is the form of the great saphenous vein, a major superficial branch off the femoral vein every bit it moves distally through the femoral culvert and extends superficial to the fascia lata surrounding the structures of the thigh via the saphenous opening and takes a subcutaneous course forth the medial thigh and extended distally past the knee.[14][15]

From this saphenous opening also extends the major lymphatic chains of the region originating from the deep inguinal lymph nodes that motility aslope the femoral vessels through the femoral culvert. From the deep inguinal chain follows the superficial inguinal lymph bondage that extend subcutaneously in a superior directed course towards the landmark of the inductive superior iliac spine of the ilium, besides equally extending an inferior division along the medial portion of the proximal thigh.[16]

Nerves

The main nerve branches of the femoral region include[17][18][xix]:

• Lateral cutaneous nerve (L2-3) - exits the pelvis just medial to the ASIS of the ilium and deep to the inguinal ligament and projects superficial to the lateral surface of the inductive and posterior musculus compartments

• Obturator nerve (L2-4) - terminates in the proximal medial thigh

• Sciatic nervus (L4-S3) – projects inferiorly through the posterior muscle compartment

• The posterior cutaneous nervus of the thigh (S1-3) – projects inferior and superficial to the posterior compartment

• Femoral nerve (L2-4) which exits deep to the inguinal ligament and moves through the femoral triangle lateral to the femoral culvert; off the femoral nerve, one of the meaning branches is the saphenous nerve (L2-4) which divides off the femoral nervus as it exits the femoral triangle and follows a similar class as the femoral avenue and vein through the adductor canal deep to the sartorius musculus

Motor innervation of these nerves is covered below. Sensory innervation includes both the dermatomal and cutaneous nervus distributions. For dermatomal, the inductive thigh includes coverage by L2-L4, with the margin of L2 indicated but junior to the inguinal ligament and L4 over most of the anterior/medial knee joint. Posterior thigh dermatomes include L5 covering the lateral thigh and moving medially past S1-S4, the latter covering a small portion immediately inferior to the medial margin of the gluteal cleft. For cutaneous nerve distribution, the femoral nerve covers most of the anterior medial thigh sharing the nearly proximal medial portions with the ilioinguinal and genitofemoral nerves and a medial portion just superior to the medial femoral condyle with the obturator nerve. The posterior thigh medial to mid receives coverage from the posterior cutaneous nervus of the thigh and the lateral most portion covered by the lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh.[xx]

Muscles

As stated above, the compartment of the muscles found in the femoral region are generally intrinsic to the function of the compartment The inductive thigh muscles generally induce flexion and adduction of the hip and extension of the knee. Medial thigh muscles as a dominion produce adduction, flexion, and internal rotation of the hip. Posterior thigh muscles mostly induce extension, abduction, and internal/external rotation of the hip and flexion of the articulatio genus.[7] The specific muscles of each compartment and their motor innervation include[21]:

• Inductive thigh – innervated by the femoral nerve (L2-four); pectineus, iliopsoas (psoas major, iliacus), and quadriceps femoris (rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius, vastus intermedius), sartorius*, tensor fasciae lata*

• Medial thigh – innervated past the obturator nerve (L2-L4); obturator externus*, adductor longus/brevis/magnus, gracilis

• Posterior thigh – divisions of the sciatic nervus (L4-S2); semitendinosus, semimembranosus, biceps femoris (long and brusque heads)

*Ssome exceptions to the full general rules: sartorius flexes/abducts/externally rotates hip, tensor fasciae lata flexes/abducts hip, obturator externus externally rotates the hip.[21]

Physiologic Variants

Significant variants that can be nowadays within the femoral region involve angle of inclination of the femoral head and cervix, the origin of the profunda femoris and its lateral circumflex branches of the femoral artery, and the locations of vessels inside the femoral culvert. For the angle of inclination, an average measurement for an developed male is between 115 -140 degrees, adult females tending to run more acutely in comparison.[22] Pathologically, whether due to a genetic defect in ossification or process that weakens the femoral neck (i.e., osteomalacia), a decreased angle is known as coxa vara, and an increased angle is termed coxa valga.[23] As for the origin of the profunda femoris and circumflex branches, there are discrepancies on distance from the inguinal ligament equally reported past various cadaveric studies[24]; the nearly common origin pattern from the femoral avenue has been constitute to be posterolateral, then followed by the next common being the posterior, and and then the posteromedial.[25] Not an extremely common variation though an of import ane due to its clinical implications in central femoral venous access, ultrasound-guided evaluations of several cases have reported a transposition of the femoral artery and vein in the femoral canal. The normal orientation existence the femoral avenue lateral and the femoral vein medial, several cases warn that without ultrasound guidance complications can arise due to this anatomical variation.[26]

Surgical Considerations

Surgical interventions unremarkably indicated in the femoral region involve the repair and fixation of femur fractures. Performed by orthopedic surgeons, several important notes merit consideration within the perioperative setting which involves the complex neuro-vasculature present around the proximal femur equally outlined above.[27] Interventions for repair and modes of fixation are dependent on the type of fracture; which in turn determines the specific anatomical considerations when performing these procedures:

• Femoral neck fractures – in near cases, the femoral caput loses its only claret supply from the foveal artery found within the ligamentum teres of the acetabulum, which gets damaged as the femoral head becomes displaced within the joint capsule and undergoes avascular osteonecrosis. This injury sometimes can outcome in a hematoma that remains contained within the joint capsule and and so imposes the lowest risk of damage to surrounding structures. Repair and fixation are done via hemiarthroplasty, performed through a posterior approach which minimizes blood loss and fixes a prosthesis that tin can clear with the native acetabulum.[28] In less often encountered cases, nondisplaced or impacted fractures may result in intact blood supply to the femoral head, and and then a similar posterior approach is performed with internal fixation via intramedullary nails.[29]

• Intertrochanteric fractures of the hip – have a high take a chance of blood loss due to the proximity of the lateral circumflex arteries and, depending on extent and severity of the machinery of action of the fracture, the proximal perforating branches of the profunda femoris. Taking a lateral arroyo for repair and internal fixation via a sliding hip screw, one must consider the locations of above-mentioned arteries and lateral cutaneous nerve of the thigh, and the location of the sciatic nerve while dissecting through tissues involved.[xxx]

• Subtrochanteric/Femoral shaft fractures of the hip – heavy claret loss tin can occur with these cases, the most commonly damaged vessel in femur shaft fractures specifically being the profunda femoris, which tin eventually result in a severe neurovascular emergency known equally compartment syndrome.[31] Repair and internal fixation involve anterograde or retrograde intramedullary nailing or open reduction internal fixation (ORIF) with a plate.[32]

Clinical Significance

Within the femoral region, two clinically pregnant anatomical associations are noted, which are heavily utilized past anesthesiologists for perioperative pain management in lower extremity procedures and intensivists and ED physicians in accessing central venous apportionment via the femoral vein.  Known as the femoral triangle and adductor culvert, these anatomic associations serve as landmarks for important neuro-vasculature continued to tissues of the femoral region - providing motor/sensory innervation and blood supply.[26] The femoral triangle is bordered superiorly past the inguinal ligament, medially by the adductor longus, and laterally by the sartorius. Running through this location, the femoral vein is the most medial and the femoral artery immediately lateral as they course through the femoral canal as formed by the fascia lata – both separated from the femoral nerve which runs immediately lateral to the canal[33] The ii blood vessels and a co-operative of the femoral nerve known as the saphenous nerve then swoop deep to the sartorius muscle and enter the adductor canal. This association is bordered superficial medially by the sartorius musculus, deeply past the adductor longus muscle, and superficial laterally by the vastus medialis muscle. Independent inside this canal are the structures mentioned to a higher place, the saphenous nervus existence the almost superficial, and the femoral vein medial and femoral avenue lateral.[34]

For perioperative pain management of the lower extremity, a nerve cake can be administered to the femoral triangle, or in many cases both the femoral and adductor canals. Using ultrasound-guided needle insertion, space around the femoral and saphenous nerves within these neuro-vascular bundles can be infiltrated with analgesic agents.[1][2] Common agents used in these blocks include lidocaine or bupivacaine, among other up and coming agents; the choice of agent used in the block based on the provider's judgment and the reason for utilise.[35]

Due to the typical location of the femoral vein inside the femoral triangle and canal, ease of access allows providers to insert primal Four lines if indicated. Though not the primary site for key catheter placement, this beingness the internal jugular vein, central venous access via femoral vein has been proven as an efficient alternative.[36]

Review Questions

Figure

Inguinal Region, Junior Epigastric Artery and Vein, Rectus Abdominis Musculus, Internal Inguinal Band, Hesselbach's Triangle, Inguinal Ligament, Inguinal Canal, External Inguinal Ring, Femoral Ring, Femoral Vein, Femoral Avenue, Spermatic Cord. (more...)

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